I grew up as a Catholic but over time I have come to dibble-dabble in a few religions and I did not come to Islam as a cradle believer, nor even as an early student. My first encounters were cultural, almost accidental. I attended an all-Muslim school for 6 years of Secondary School and in my O-level, I mainly studied Divinity/Christian Religious Education because that's what a moral Christian would do right?
Some of my Christian classmates in O level studied Islam as a subject and always talked about how easy it was to pass and their narrations of their classes particularly in the dormitories, spoke with excitement and pride about the prophets, the battles, and the wisdom preserved in their tradition.
On the final day of each school term, when entertainment films were shown, we had the secular movie that was screened in the main hall, meanwhile the Christians would gather in one hall and the Muslims in the mosque (these were options for those that did not want to watch the secular movie). Despite being Christian myself, I was always drawn to the films in the mosque — stories of prophets, moral struggle, and the human search for God.
By the time I entered A-level, I had dabbled in almost ten subjects in my first term of form 5, searching for what might truly grip my imagination. Geography felt abstract, entrepreneurship practical but uninspiring. Islam, however, was both foreign and magnetic. In two short years, it introduced me to new vocabularies — Qur’an, hadith, fiqh, caliphate — and challenged my assumptions about what religion meant in a plural, global context. I did well in my final examinations, but the deeper gift was intellectual: the chance to enter a tradition that had been misrepresented, misunderstood, and politicised in ways both damaging and fascinating.
This article is both an academic essay and a personal reflection. It unfolds in six parts:
- The bias and misconceptions surrounding Islam,
- The four Sunni schools of law,
- The principles of interpretation that underlie their differences,
- The history of major caliphates,
- The life of the Prophet Muhammad, and
- Why, despite admiration, I have not converted.
Islam as a Topic of Bias
Few religions are as entangled in contemporary stereotypes as Islam. In global media and political rhetoric, Islam is often reduced to an image of extremism, violence, or cultural “backwardness.” These portrayals ignore the vast internal diversity of Islam and the ordinary lives of 1.9 billion Muslims worldwide.
Scholars of Islamophobia often stress three mechanisms of bias:
- Simplification. A faith practiced across continents is treated as a single bloc. The Malian farmer, the Malaysian banker, the Bosnian teacher, and the Syrian refugee are all collapsed into one caricatured “Muslim.”
- Political exploitation. In Europe, North America, and parts of Asia, political actors have repeatedly instrumentalised fear of Muslims to push through legislation, win elections, or justify security measures.
- Educational gaps. Where schools fail to introduce Islam’s intellectual history, myths thrive. In the absence of knowledge about caliphates, law, and philosophy, the word “sharia” becomes synonymous with brutality rather than jurisprudence.
The consequences of bias are not abstract. Surveys show Muslims in many countries report discrimination in employment, housing, and education. After terrorist attacks, spikes in hate crimes often follow, directed not only at Muslims but at those merely perceived to be Muslim.
Studying Islam is not just an intellectual pursuit but a corrective: it restores nuance where the public imagination has flattened complexity.
The Four Sunni Schools of Law (Madhāhib)
When outsiders (people that have not cared enough o read) hear “Islamic law,” they often imagine a single, monolithic code. In reality, Sunni Islam developed four enduring legal schools, each with its own founder, methodology, and regional legacy.
Hanafi — The Jurists of Reason
Founded by Abū Ḥanīfa (d. 767 CE) in Kufa, Iraq, the Hanafi school is known for its flexibility. Living in a diverse urban centre exposed to Byzantine and Persian influences, Abū Ḥanīfa and his students used qiyās (analogy) and ra’y (considered opinion) to address situations not directly covered by Qur’an or Hadith. They also introduced istihsān (juristic preference), allowing reason to override strict analogy in order to preserve justice. Adopted by the Abbasids and later the Ottomans, Hanafi law became the most widespread school, dominant in South and Central Asia, Turkey, and the Balkans.
Maliki — The Practice of Medina
Imam Mālik ibn Anas (d. 795 CE) compiled the Muwattaʾ, one of the earliest Hadith-and-law collections. For him, the living practice of Medina’s community was itself a kind of “text,” embodying the Prophet’s legacy. Maliki jurisprudence thus treats the consensus of Medina as binding evidence. Spread through North and West Africa, and through Muslim Spain (al-Andalus), the Maliki school reflects a deep respect for local communal practice.
Shāfiʿī — Systematiser of Law
Imam al-Shāfiʿī (d. 820 CE) revolutionised legal theory with his Risāla. He insisted on a strict hierarchy of sources: Qur’an, then authentic Hadith, then consensus, and finally analogy. Shāfiʿī’s rigor limited the role of personal opinion, anchoring jurisprudence more firmly in textual evidence. His school flourished in East Africa, parts of Arabia, Southeast Asia, and the Indian Ocean world.
Hanbali — Textual Conservatism
Founded by Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal (d. 855 CE), the Hanbali school is the smallest but most textually conservative. It prioritises hadith over analogy and is suspicious of rationalist tools. Centuries later, Hanbali thought would inspire reformist currents, including elements of Wahhabism in Arabia. Despite its small following historically, its influence on contemporary Islamic movements has been significant.
Why the differences?
Each school arose in a distinct context: Kufa’s pluralism, Medina’s living tradition, Shāfiʿī’s quest for systematisation, Ibn Ḥanbal’s struggle against political pressure. Methodological differences in weighing hadith, analogy, and consensus produced divergent rulings on everything from ritual to commerce.
Hadith and the Science of Interpretation
At the heart of Islamic law lies the question: how do we move from text to rule?
- Hadith.
Reports of the Prophet’s sayings and actions constitute the Sunnah. Muslim scholars established a systematic approach to hadith criticism, assessing the reliability of chains of transmission (isnād) and the authenticity of the content (matn). Some reports were deemed trustworthy (ṣaḥīḥ), while others were considered weak (ḍaʿīf), and still others were deemed fabricated. Consequently, various schools of thought adopted or rejected specific hadith, resulting in legal divergences.
- Uṣūl al-fiqh.
“Principles of jurisprudence” is the literal term for this discipline, which codified the methods of interpretation. It explores questions such as whether public welfare (maṣlaḥa) should be considered a source of law, whether local custom (ʿurf) should be recognised, and how apparent contradictions in texts should be reconciled. Far from being a rigid code, Islamic law is better imagined as a conversation – centuries of scholars reasoning, arguing, and adapting divine guidance to human complexity.
Caliphates: Political Forms of Islam
Islam’s political history exhibits a diverse range of forms, mirroring the intricate tapestry of its legal traditions.
- Rashidun Caliphate (632–661 CE):
The inaugural four caliphs, Abu Bakr, ʿUmar, ʿUthmān, and ʿAlī, oversaw a period of significant territorial expansion and internal strife. Sunnis hold them in high regard as rightly guided leaders, while Shia remembrance, particularly for ʿAlī, marks the genesis of sectarian divergence.
- Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE):
Headquartered in Damascus, the Umayyad dynasty expanded Muslim influence across a vast expanse, encompassing territories from Spain to Central Asia. While critics accused them of worldly indulgence, they established pivotal administrative frameworks. Notably, in al-Andalus, an Umayyad emirate flourished into a vibrant cultural hub.
- Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE):
The Abbasids relocated their capital to Baghdad, ushering in an era often referred to as Islam’s “Golden Age.” During this period, remarkable advancements were made in various fields, including science, medicine, philosophy, and the arts. Baghdad emerged as a cosmopolitan centre until its destruction by the Mongols.
- Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171 CE):
An Ismaʿili Shīʿī dynasty, the Fatimids governed from Cairo and rivalled the Abbasids, fostering a vibrant intellectual milieu.
- Ottoman Caliphate (1299–1922 CE):
The Ottoman sultans eventually claimed the caliphate, institutionalising Hanafi law throughout their vast empire. Their decline following World War I effectively brought the caliphal institution to an end. These caliphates not only governed but also profoundly shaped the trajectory of Islamic scholarship. Patronage of specific schools, the establishment of madrasas, and the flourishing of translation movements all intertwined religion and politics in intricate ways.
Why I Have Not Converted Yet
It is easy to admire a tradition and harder to inhabit it. For me, Islam commands deep respect: the intellectual size of its law, the moral seriousness of its texts, the beauty of its rituals. The Qur’an is probably the most beautiful book written.
For me, Islam remains a subject of deep fascination, a lens through which to study law, politics, and faith. Whether one believes or not, to understand Islam is to understand a central thread of world history, politics, literature and art.
My homie constantly telling me 'bout Quran, puttin' me on
I read a few pages and recognize the wisdom in it
But I ain't got the discipline for stickin' with it